Saturday, October 3, 2009

CARA MENGATASI MASALAH PENGAMATAN (VISUAL MEMORY)

VISUAL MEMORY

* Ingatan penglihatan memerlukan kemahiran atau kebolehan untuk mengingat apa yang telah dilihat atau diperhatikan.

* Semasa melakukan pembacaan, kanak-kanak mesti mengekalkan ingatan penglihatannya tentang huruf-huruf dan perkataan yang telah dilihatnya.


CADANGAN MENGATASI

• Sediakan bahan-bahan di atas meja dan minta murid menelitinya. Sebagai contoh, gambar-gambar. Tutupkan gambar-gambar tersebut dan minta murid menyebut kembali gambar yang dilihatnya.

• Tunjuk satu corak atau gambar kepada murid. Tutup corak atau gambar itu dan minta murid melakarnya semula.

• Tunjukkan satu gambar kepada murid dan kemudian tutup. Bincangkan dengan murid mengenai gambar tersebut.

• Ambil satu tali dan gantung beberapa keping gambar dalam susunan yang tertentu. Turunkan gambar itu dan minta murid susun semula sebagaimana yang telah dibuat oleh guru.

• Perkembangkan ingatan kanak-kanak dengan membincangkan benda-benda yang telah mereka lihat, kemudian minta mereka ceritakan semula apa yang mereka ingat seperti tempat yang mereka lawati, orang yang mereka jumpa, warna pakaian dan sebagainya.

Wednesday, September 9, 2009

Strategi Mengatasi Masalah Pengamatan (Teknik Pengulangan)

Teknik Pengulangan


Sesuatu pengetahuan atau kemahiran , setelah dipelajari hendaklah diulang-ulang bagi menjamin kekekalan pembelajaran. Dengan itu, konsep –konsep yang dipelajari haruslah diulang kaji dari semasa ke semasa.


Penggunaan Teknik Dalam Bilik Darjah

# Untuk mempelajari tingkah laku, rangsangan perlu diadakan. Ini bermakna, guru hendaklah menyediakan pelbagai sumber pengajaran-pembelajaran yang menarik serta mengagumkan agar pembelajaran akan berlaku.


# Pembelajaran boleh berlaku melalui usaha cuba jaya. Ini bermakna seseorang murid boleh mempelajari sesuatu tanpa diajar oleh guru. Bagi menjimatkan masa, guru bolehlah memberikan bimbingan yang sewajarnya.


# Konsep hukum kesediaan boleh diluaskan untuk diguna di dalam bilik darjah. Seseorang murid hendaklah bersedia dari segi mental, minat, sikap dan psikomotor sebelum pembelajaran berkesan dapat berlaku.


# Latihan dan pengulangan akan meningkatkan keberkesanan pembelajaran. Selain itu, ia boleh meningkatkan kemahiran dan ingatan murid-murid.


# Kesan pembelajaran yang menyeronokan akan terus mendorong murid ke arah pencapaian yang lebih baik. Dengan itu, guru hendaklah menyediakan pelbagai jenis ganjaran bagi meneguhkan pembelajaran murid-murid. Ringkasnya, motivasi amat penting bagi meningkatkan keberkesanan pembelajaran.


# Guru hendaklah menyediakan peluang untuk murid-murid menikmati kejayaan agar mereka terus terdorong untuk belajar. Pastikan tugasan yang diberi tidak terlalu tinggi aras kesukarannya terutama terhadap murid-murid yang mengalami masalah pengamatan. Kejayaan menyelesaikan sesuatu projek menimbulkan perasaan puas hati yang akan bertindak sebagai pendorong kepada murid-murid.

Sunday, September 6, 2009

MASALAH PEMBELAJARAN DI KALANGAN KANAK-KANAK


Memanglah menjadi hasrat setiap pasangan suami isteri untuk mendapat zuriat yang berpontensi tinggi dan berkeupayaan mencapai kecemerlangan dalam bidang yang diceburi apabila dewasa kelak. Corak kehidupan masa kini amatlah memberi penekanan terhadap pencapaian intelek yang tinggi serta kemahiran yang sesuai dengan kehendak masyarakat dan negara.


Penekanan terhadap kecemerlangan telah menggalakkan penubuhan intitusi -intitusi yang menawarkan program -program pengayaan (enhancement programes ) yang bertujuan untuk melengkapkan anak -anak dengan kemahiran membaca , menulis , dan mengira dari kecil lagi. Institusi -intitusi ini juga mengaturkan aktiviti -aktiviti atau kurikulum yang menekankan aspek penyampaian maklumat dalam aktiviti -aktiviti harian kanak -kanak tersebut. Pengusaha -pengusaha tadika berlumba -lumba untuk memberikan program pengayaan kepada anak -anak murid mereka dengan menggunakan berbagai -bagai teknologi pembelajaran yang dikatakan sesuai dan boleh meningkatkan teknologi pembelajaran yang dikatakan sesuai dan boleh meningkatkan prestasi intelek kanak -kanak.


Pengalaman yang diperoleh daripada program -program intervensi keatas kanak -kanak cacat telah membolehkan para profesional memahami konsep by pass strategies , iaitu strategi -strategi yang membolehkan kanak -kanak cacat memperoleh sesuatu kemahiran dengan menggunakan keupayaannya. Umpamanya , seorang kanak -kanak pekak boleh berhubung dengan menggunakan bahasa isyarat , kanak -kanak buta boleh membaca menggunakan braille dan kanak -kanak spastik yang lemah anggota kakinya boleh berjalan dengan menggunakn alat yang dinamakan orthosis.


Kecacatan seperti yang dialami oleh kanak -kanak spastik , buta , rencat akal dan pekak teruk mudah dikenal pasti untuk diberikan program intervensi awal. Tetapi , disfungsi perkembangan yang tidak ketara dan sudah dikenal pasti banyak berlaku di kalangan kanak -kanak yang menggalami masalah pembelajaran di sekolah. Sejak beberapa tahun kebelakangan , Kefahaman tentang masalah pembelajaran di kalangan kanak -kanak telah berkembang dengan pesatnya. Memang jelas bahawa masalah ini adalah kompleks dan psikososial. Pengalaman hidup seseorang kanak -kanak itu mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat terhadap perkembangan intelek dan perwatakannya.


Ibu bapa dan guru-guru juga kadang kala membuat tanggapan -tanggapan yang mungkin kurang tepat terhadap kanak -kanak yang kurang maju dalam pelajarannya. Si anak dikatakan malas , tidak bermotivasi , bodoh atau asyik bermain sahaja. Terdapat pula sesetengah ibu bapa yang menyalahkan pihak guru dengan mengatakan bahawa guru kurang berpengalaman , teknik mengajar tidak berkesan , pilih kasih atau kurang memberikan perhatian kepada si anak. Ramai ibu bapa mendaftarkan anak -anak mereka untuk mengikuti kelas tambahan bagi meningkatkan kemajuan pelajaran mereka. Walaupun saya akui usaha -usaha ini boleh membantu memperbaiki prestasi akademik sebahagian besar kanak -kanak , tetapi masih ada lagi segolongan kanak -kanak yang memerlukan bantuan pembelajaran yang lebih khusus.


Punca -punca masalah pembelajaran.

Punca -punca timbulnya masalah pembelajaran di kalangan kanak -kanak boleh dibahagikan kepada dua kategori :

1. punca biologi 2. Punca psikososial

Punca biologi merangkumi faktor faktor baka dan penyakit -penyakit yang menjejaskan fungsi otak dan urat saraf. Kekurangan oksigen sewaktu kelahiran ( asphyxia ), lembam lapisan otak (meningitis ) dan sawan yang berpanjangan boleh menyebabkan disfungsi urat saraf ( neurologi dysfunction ).


Pakar kanak -kanak juga telah lama menyedari bahawa kandungan plumbum yang tinggi dalam darah (lead poisoning ) seseorang kanak -kanak boleh menyebabkan wujudnya masalah pembelajaran. Selain itu, banyak lagi bahan yang telah dikenal pasti sebagai punca masalah pembelajaran. Doktor dan ibu bapa perlulah peka terhadap hal ini supaya dapat mengurangkan risiko anak -anak terdedah kepada penggunaan bahan -bahan tersebut.


Punca psikologi sering mewujudkan masalah pembelajaran. Pengaruh sekitaran yang tidak sihat , kurang rangsangan , kurang perhatian ibu bapa dan kemiskinan hidup akan menyebabkan kanak -kanak berkenaan mengalami masalah pembelajaran. Umumnya , unsur biologi berinteraksi dengan unsur psikososial. Oleh itu , setiap kanak -kanak yang menghadapi masalah ini perlu dirawat secara teliti dengan menggunakan pendekatan yang berasingan.


Satu kajian untuk mengenal pasti dengan lebih terperinci punca -punca kegagalan dalam pelajaran telah dijalankan ke atas kanak-kanak dalam kelas pemulihan di tiga buah sekolah di selangor dan kuala Lumpur oleh LPPKN denagn kerjasama Kementerian Pendidikan pada tahun 1986. Antara punca-punca yang dikaenal pasti ialah kurang perhatian oleh ibu bapa dalam soal pelajaran anak-anak, kurang motivasi di kalangan kanak-kanak itu sendiri serta lambat memperoleh kemahiran membaca, menulis dan mengira. Ada juga kanak-kanak yang menghadapi masalah lambat menguasai bahasa yang seterusnya menjejaskan proses menguasai kemahiran membaca. Sesetengah kanak-kank pula menghadapi masalah lemah pengamatan (perceptual weakness) dan lemah daya ingatan. Kurang keyakinan terhadap diri sendiri juga turut menimbulkan masalah pembelajaran. Kanak-kanak tersebut akan berasa takut untuk bercakap dan tidak gemar bergaul dengan rakan-rakan sebayanya.


Apa yang menarik ialah kanak-kanak yang bermasalah ini menunjukkan kemajuan yang amat menggalakan apabila dinilai sekali lagi enam bulan kemudian. Pada pendapat saya, Perkembangan yang positif ini adalah juga disebabkan oleh perhatian yang lebih oleh guru-guru terhadap kanak-kanak tersebut. Setelah mengenal pasti dengan lebih tepat kelemahan-kelemahan muridnya, guru dapat menggunakan kaedah-kaedah yang berkesan untuk membantu kanak-kank itu membaca. Menulis dan mengira dengan cepat. Ibu bapa juga turut memberikan perhatian yang lebih terhadap pelajaran anak mereka. Sianak sendiri akan lebih bermotivasi setelah mendapat perhatian, sokongan dan bimbingan daripada ibu bapa dan guru.


Ada satu kes yang melibatkan seorang kanak-kanak yang kurang baik daya penglihatannya. Akibatnya, dia kurang nampak papan hitam didalam kelas. Setelah dibawa kepada perhatian ibu bapanya, barulah cermin mata ditempah untuknya. Pretasinya disekolah juga meningkat. Ada juga kanak-kanak yang kurang daya pendengaran akibat cecair dalam telinga (serous otitis media) dan ini sudah tentu boleh menjejaskan pelajarannya. Dia perlukan rawatan untuk memperbaiki pendengarannya.


Ada pula kanak-kanak yang kelihatan pucat dan sering mengantuk didalm kelas. Akibatnya, pretasi akademiknya merosot.


Kanak-kanak yang terencat akal mundur dalam pelajarannya kerana kebolehan berfikir, tumpuan perhatian, perkembangan bahasa, pengamatan dan keupayaannya memproses maklumat adalah lambat dibandingkan dengan kanak-kanak biasa yang sebaya dengannya. Kanak-kanak berusia lapan tahun yang mempunyai tahap intelek (IQ) setaraf dengan kanak-kanak lima tahun lazimnya masih sukar mengenal huruf. Kebolehannya sama ada dari segi penguasan bahasa, keupayaan menjalani aktiviti-aktiviti harian atau pun kemahiran sosial akan hanya setaraf dengan kanak-kanak yang berusia lima tahun. Oleh itu, dia akan mendapati sukar untuk mengikut kurikulum didalam darjah satu.


Kita perlu mengasingkan kanak-kanak normal yang mengalami masalah pembelajaran dengan kanak-kanak terencat akal yang mengalami masalah yang sama. Ini boleh ditentukan melalui ujian IQ. Kanak-kanak mengalami masalah pembelajaran berbeza diantara satu dengan lain dari segi kekuatan dan kelemahan yan dimilikinya. Oleh itu, pendidikan khas yang diberikan pada seseorang kanak-kanak itu perlulah diindividukan berasaskan pada kekuatan dan kelemahan tersebut.


Pelbagai corak difungsi perkembangan ditemui dikalangan kanak-kanak yang mengalami masalah pembelajaran. Umpamannya, seorang kanak-kank yang berusia enam tahun yang sungguh cerdik sehingga boleh bermain dengan komputernya, melukis gambar roket dengan kemas dan membaca dengan baik mungkin mempunyai tumpuan perhatian yang singkat. Oleh itu,dia mungkin tidak membuat kerjanya dikelas kerana tidak menumpukan perhatian kepada arahan yang diberikan oleh gurunya. Sebaliknya, perhatiannya lebih tertumpu kepada perkara-perkara yang sangat diminatinya seperti permainan komputer dan lukisan.


Kanak-kanak yang lemah ingatannya akan mengalami masalah pembelajaran. Dia mungkin menunjukkan kecekapan membuat bentuk rumah menggunakan alat permainan lego dan melukis gambar kereta atau binatang tetapi menghadapi kesulitan membaca dan menulis. Mengajarnya membaca dan menulis memerlukan kesabaran kerana perlu memberi penerangan berulang-ulang kali.


Penilaian ke atas seorang kanak-kanak yang mengalami masalah pembelajaran

Pakar yang menilai kanak-kank yang mengalami masalah pembelajaran perlu mendapatkan riwayat yang terperinci dan mengambil perhatian terhadap kemungkinan berlakunya kerosakan otak seperti yang dialami oleh bayi yang dilahirkan dalam keadaan lemas (asphyxiated ), perdarahan dalam otak , penyakit meningtis , sawan yang berpanjangan dan sebagainya. Beliau juga perlu menyelidik sama ada kanak -kanak tersebut mempunyai adik - beradik lain yang terencat akal yang mungkin boleh dikaitkan dengan faktor baka.


Pakar kanak -kanak telah lama mengetahui bahawa ada bahan -bahan makanan tertentu yang boleh menyebabkan perubahan pada tingkah laku kanak -kanak. Kanak -kanak mungkin menjadi lebih resah hiperaktif , lebih buas dan tidak boleh menumpukan perhatian. Oleh itu , penilaian tidak lengkap jika riwayat pemakanan kanak -kanak tersebut tidak diambil dengan teliti. Ini penting terutamanya jika pakar mengesyaki kemungkinan tingkah laku yang abnormal itu disebabkan oleh sesuatu bahan yang dimakan. Walau bagaimanapun , aspek ini tidak akan diulas dengan panjang lebar dalam bab ini.


Sewaktu melakukan pemeriksaan fizikal , keadaan -keadaan seperti kurang daya penglihatan atau pendengaran , kekok tangan masalah sawan , gangguan pada urat saraf yang mungkin mengakibatkan dia tidak boleh bercakap dengan jelas dan lemah anggota tangan atau kakinya perlu juga dikenal pasti. Jika disyaki pendengarannya kurang jelas , ujian yang terperinci perlu dijalankan. penilaian psyho- educational penting untuk mengetahui kekuatan pembelajarannya pada masa itu. Jika kanak -kanak itu diasyaki menghidap sesuatu pemyakit , doktor akan menjalankan ujian -ujian yang sewajarnya.


Kini , bilangan yang mahir dalam menjalankan penilaian terperinci keatas kanak -kanak yang mengalami masalah pembelajaran bagi mengenal pasti unsur -unsur disfungsi perkembangan (elements of devefunctions ) masih kurang. Penilaian seperti ini perlu dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti ciri -ciri kekuatan dan kelemahan yang terdapat pada seseorang kanak -kanak itu. Maklumat -maklumat ini akan membolehkan pihak yang berkenaan memilih dan menjalankan strategi -strategi pendidikan yang khas dengan berkesan ke atas kanak -kanak tersebut. Cara rawatan atau latihan seharusnya berbeza diantara seorang kanak -kanak dengan yang lain.


Kanak -kanak yang mengalami sejenis sawan yang dinamakan petit mal epilepsy sering tidak sedarkan diri beberapa ketika dan keadaan ini mungkin berlaku berpuluh -puluh kali dalam sehari. Ini sudah pasti akan mengganggu pelajarannya. Dia perlu diberikan ubat mencegah sawan. Kanak -kanak yang terlalu singkat tumpuan perhatiannya mungkin boleh dibantu dengan ubat - ubat stimulant tertentu dankaedah pengubahsuaian tingkah laku ( behavioural modification method ). Murid -murid yang lemah daya inggatan digalakkan menggariskan perkara -perkara utama atau key -points dalam sesuatu perenggan dan membacanya berulang -ulang kali supaya mudah diingat.


Masalah membaca

Kadang kala , terdapat kanak -kanak yang boleh membaca tetapi tidak faham apa yang dibacanya. Ini mungkin kerana kurang tumpuan perhatian , tidak aktif membaca , tidak faham makna sesuatu perkataan dan sebagainya. Latihan -latihan tertentu perlu diberikan untuk meningkatkan kemahiran membaca kanak -kanak itu supaya dia dapat memahami apa yang dibacanya.


Ada beberapa cara untuk membantu murid -murid sekolah yang masih tidak boleh membaca. Kanak -kanak kurang motivasi untuk belajar mungkin dipengaruhi oleh suasana di rumahnya. Ibu bapanya mungkin kurang memberikan perhatian atau tiada siapa yang mendisplinkan atau menggalakannya mentelaah buku -buku pelajaranya. Keadaan ini perlu diperbaiki. Kanak -kanak ini boleh mendapat manfaat daripada kaunseling dan bimbingan yang diberikan oleh guru -guru yang berpengalaman. Minat membaca amat penting ditanamkan dalam diri si anak itu sebelum dia bersedia untuk membaca. Membacakan buku-buku cerita atau menggunakan teknik flash -cards boleh mendatangkan minat membaca kepadak anak -kanak berkenaan. Melihat orang lain membaca atau melawat ke kedai -kedai buku juga digalakkan. Galakkan si anak mengeja dan menyebut perkataan tetapi jangan gunakan paksaan. Benarkan dia mencoteng dalam buku atau kertas -kertas kosong. Sesekali cabar dia meniru huruf atau perkataan. Layanilah dia jika dia bertanya sesuatu perkataan yang tertulis.


Masalah membaca sering terdapat di kalangan kanak -kanak yang menggalami masalah pembelajaran. Ini boleh dibahagikan kepada dua ketogori , iaitu masalah mengenal huruf (decording ) dan masalah memahami apa yang dibacanya (reading comprehension )


Keupayaan membaca dikalangan kanak-kank boleh dibahagikan kepada beberapa peringkat. Peringkat pertama ialah peringkat dimana dia sendiri gemar menengok buku-buku yang mengandungi gambar-gambar menarik Lazimnya. Pada peringakt usia lima hingga enam tahun, dia sudah mula mengenai huruf secara merangkak-rangkak. Semakin lama, dia semakin cekap sehingga boleh mengeja sesuatu perkataan. Kebiasaanya, apabila berada dalam darjah dua atau tiga, dia sudah cekap membaca tanpa memikirkan dengan mendalam makna setiap ayat yang dibacanya. Ini berbeza dengan kanak-kanak dalam darjah lima keatas yang sudah mula berfikir tentang makna setiaap sesuatu yang dibacanya. Dia mula mempersoalkan kesahihan maklumat yang terdapat dalam buku-buku tersebut. Tumpuan perhatiannya lebih mendalam dan dia lebih menggunakan ingatannya sewaktu membaca. Pada peringkat ini, seseorang kanak-kanak yang lemah daya ingatannya atau singkat tumpuan perhatiannya sering menghadapi masalah memahami apa yang dibacanya. Ini kerana bahasa yang digunakan dalam buku-buku tersebut lebih kompleks dan memerlukan pengetahuan yang tersimpan dalam ingatan untuk memahami apa yang dibaca. Lazimnya, kanak-kanak yang berusia 12 tahun keatas sudah boleh membuat ringkasan terhadap sesuatu yang dibacanya. Kanak-kanak yang sudah pandai meringkaskan, menganalisa dan menyusun denagn kemas maklumat-maklumat yang diperolehi daripada pembacaan akan dapat menunjukkan prestasi akademik yang baik. Sebaliknya, kanak-kanak yang lambat mengenal huruf dan lambat membaca akan mengalami masalah. Jika dia boleh membaca tetapi kurang memahami apa yang dibacanya, prestasi akademiknya juga akan turut terjejas.


Kadangkala , terdapat kanak -kanak yang mengatakan dia faham isi kandungan sesuatu perenggan dalam buku yang dibacanya , tetapi apabila disoal , dia tidak dapat memberikan jawapan yang memuaskan. Keluhan seperti " saya fikirkan saya faham apa yang saya baca " sering kedengaran. Situasi seperti ini perlu dianalisa untuk mengetahui punca yang menyebabkan kanak-kanak ini tidak memahami apa yang dibaca. Kemudian tumpuan perhatiannya terlalu singkat atau dia tidak membaca secara aktif. Dia perlu digalakkan supaya sering bertanya pada dirinya apa yang hendak disampaikan oleh penulis. Kadang kala , si anak itu sendiri tidak faham apa yang dibaca kerana kelemahannya memahami bahasa yang digunakan. Sesuatu perkataan yang tidak difahami akan mengaburi konsep yang ingin disampaikan. Mungkin dia sukar memahami konsep yang cuba ditonjolkan oleh si penulis kerana terlalu kompleks. Oleh itu , dia memerlukan penjelasan gurunya. Kadangkala pula dia memang tidak ingat apa yang telah dibacanya dan mengulang membaca.


Oleh kerana masalah membaca merupakan sebab utama yang menyebabkan wujudnya masalah pembelajaran di kalangan kanak -kanak , ibu bapa perlulah berusaha menggalakan si anak membaca dari kecil lagi. Kanak -kanak berbeza antara satu sama lain dari segi kesedaran membaca. Ada yang lambat dan ada yang cepat. Ini ada kaitan dengan interaksi baka dan pengaruh psikososial seperti galakan yang diterimanya , peluang -peluang serta sumber -sumber bacaan yang terdapat di rumah serta motivasi si anak itu sendiri untuk membaca. Minat membaca juga dipengaruhi oleh orang sekelilingnya.


Kanak -kanak hiperaktif

Kanak -kanak hiperaktif mempunyai ciri -ciri tingkah laku seperti tumpuan perhatian yang singkat , sentiasa resah dan tidak boleh duduk diam. Dia tidak mengendahkan arahan ibu bapa atau gurunya dan menunjukan kedegilanya serta susah dikawal dan displinkan. Oleh itu , kanak -kanak hiperaktif sering mengalami masalah pembelajaran di sekolah kerana tabiatnya yang suka merayau -merayau , tidak boleh duduk di tempatnya dan tidak mendengar arahan guru.


Adakalanya , kanak -kanak hiperaktif juga mempamerkan ciri -ciri perkembangan bahasayang lambat. Kesemuanya ini akan menyebabkan dia tidak digemari oleh kanak -kanak lain dan dia sering berasa terasing. Kanak -kanak yang sebegini sering menyulitkan gurunya yang kebiasaannya terpaksa menjaga 40 orang murid dalam satu kelas. Dia tidak boleh memberikan perhatian yang khusus pada murid ini sahaja.


Adakalanya , kanak -kanak hiperaktif ini mempunyai keupayaan intelek yang baik tetapi oleh kerana sikap resah dan perangai impulsifnya , dia sukar dikawal di dalam suasana sekolah biasa. Kanak -kanak serti inimemerlukan latihan khas berbentuk modifikasi tingkah laku untuk meningkatkan tumpuan perhatiannya serta latihan yang menggunakan pendekatan satu dengan satu ( one -to -one opproach ). Guru-guru perlu sering memberikan peringatan kepada murid ini sama ada melalui isyarat atau mengetuk meja untuk mendapatkan perhatianya dari semasa kesemasa. Adalakanya, pakar kana-kana perlu memberikan ubat-ubat yang khusus yang bertujuan untuk mengurangkan keresahan agar boleh menjalani latihan dan program pendidikan dengan lebih berkesan lagi.


Kekekokan

Ada juga kanak-kanak yang kekok dan tidak dapat menulis degan cepat. Ini menyebabkan dia lambat menghabiskan latihan-latihan menulis yang diberikan. Kanak-kanak seperti ini memerlukan lebih banyak latihan untuk meningkatkan kemahiran penulisannya. Tatkala kanak-kanak lain sudah boleh menulis ayat-ayat yang disebutkan oleh gurunya, dia pula terlalu lambat kerana masih belum cekap mengeluarkan maklumat yang diperlukan dari ingatannya dengan cepat atau secara automatik. Ini boleh meletihkan mentalnya dan mengakibatkan tulisannya sukar dibaca. Sayang sekali, dia sering diaggap lembab walaupun dia mungkin seorang yang cerdik.


Gangguan Emosi

Gangguan emosi boleh menyebabkan seseorang kanak-kanak itu tidak maju didalam pelajarannya. Sering juga terdapat kanak-kanak yang tidak dapat menumpukan perhatiannya terhadap pelajaran kerana gangguan-gangguan seperti sakit perut, sakit kepala dan sebagainya yang berpunca daripada gangguan emosinya. Contohnya ialah seorang kanak-kanak berusia lapan tahun yang secara mendadak merosot dalam pelajarannya sejak enam bulan.


Sebelum itu dia merupakan murid yang cerdik dan menunjukkan prestasi yang sangat baik di sekolah. Sejak enam bulan yang lalu, ibu bapanya mengalami masalah rumahtangga dan sedang berura-ura untuk berpisah. Ini telah menimbulkan suasana rumahtangga yang tidak harmoni yang meyebabkan si anak sering mengeluh tidak sihat. Kanak -kanak yang mengalami gangguan emosi perlulah dikenal pasti supaya boleh diberi kaunseling untuk membantunya mengatasi masalah emosinya.


Kaunseling memerlukan penglibatan seluruh ahli keluarga untuk mencari jalan penyelesaian yang sebaik-baiknya. Masalah pembelajaran dikalangan kanak-kanak memang sering berlaku dan kebanyakannya boleh diatasi degan menggunakan pendekatan-pendekatan yang tertentu. Pendekatan-pendekatan ini perlulah mengambil kira ciri-ciri kekuatan dan kelemahan kanak-kanak berkenaan.


Strategi-strategi bypass yang sesuai boleh diaturkan bagi membolehkan dia mengatasi kelemahannya. Gelaran-gelaran seperti rencat akal (mental handicap), hiperaktif (hyperactivity) dan sebagainya tidak ada guna baginya sama sekali tanpa langkah-langkah intervensi yang sewajarnya. Sebaliknya, adalah lebih baik diwujukan program-program bagi membantu mengatasi masalah kanak-kanak ini. Kebanyakan kanak-kanak yang diberikan perhatian dan latihan-latihan akan dapat mengatasi masalah mereka dan seterusnya maju dalam pelajaran mereka.


Tanggungjawab untuk membantu anak-anak yang bermasalah ini bukan hanya terletak diatas bahu para profesional atau guru-guru sekolah sahaja malah ibu bapa juga perlu mengambil perhatian berat dan memastikan anak-anak mereka mengikut latihan-latihan khas dirumah.



sumber: http://home.hamidarshat.com/ITKmasalah_pembelajaran_di_kalangan.htm

Monday, August 10, 2009

How to make flannel board.




Play is very valuable to your child. It is such a natural way to learn. Through play, your child is learning to exercise imagination, try out new ideas and gain a sense of control over his world.


Before a child can understand an abstract concept (like learning shapes), there must be concrete learning experiences. The child must feel shapes, see shapes, manipulate the shapes. This is what makes play such an effective learning tool, as opposed to direct instruction.


One way a child can become involved in these concrete learning experiences is through the use of a flannel board. In addition, your child will be developing fine motor skills.


You will need:

A sturdy piece of plywood, cardboard or posterboard
A piece of flannel large enough to cover the board
Duct tape (or a staple gun or upholstery tacks if using plywood)
Felt squares to make shapes and other cut-outs
What to do:

Wrap the piece of flannel around the board you have chosen.
Secure all edges around the back side with the duct tape, staples or tacks.
Tips:


The flannel board doesn't have to be large to be effective. A 1 x 1 foot square is adequate and can travel in the car, or you can make a larger board for use at home.
You can find scrap pieces of felt or fabric squares, which are very inexpensive at a fabric store, hobby shop or local discount store.


Try starting out with "easier" concepts like shapes and colors, and then move on to numbers, letters and animals.


You can also color images from coloring books or use pictures from magazines. Just mount these on some posterboard or sturdy paper and hot glue some small squares of sandpaper to the back so that it will stick to the flannel board.

SPEECH THERAPY

What Is Speech-Language Therapy?

Speech-language therapy is the treatment for most kids with speech and/or language disorders. A speech disorder refers to a problem with the actual production of sounds, whereas a language disorder refers to a difficulty understanding or putting words together to communicate ideas.


Speech Disorders and Language Disorders
Speech disorders include the following problems, according to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA):


Articulation disorders include difficulties producing sounds in syllables or saying words incorrectly to the point that other people can't understand what's being said.
Fluency disorders include problems such as stuttering, the condition in which the flow of speech is interrupted by abnormal stoppages, repetitions (st-st-stuttering), or prolonging sounds and syllables (ssssstuttering).


Resonance or voice disorders include problems with the pitch, volume, or quality of the voice that distract listeners from what's being said. These types of disorders may also cause pain or discomfort for the child when speaking.
Dysphagia/oral feeding disorders, including difficulties with eating and swallowing.
Language disorders can be either receptive or expressive:


Receptive disorders refer to difficulties understanding or processing language.
Expressive disorders include difficulty putting words together, limited vocabulary, or inability to use language in a socially appropriate way.

The use of flashcards.

Flashcards remain one of the best tools for memorizing information. The most common way to create flashcards is to use index cards. Students can simply write the question on one side and the answer on the opposite side and test themselves repeatedly. However, there are several ways to modify this process to enhance the learning experience.


Flashcards for Individuals

One way to enhance learning is to incorporate color into the card-making process. If you are using flashcards to study a foreign language, for instance, you may use pink for feminine nouns and blue for masculine nouns.
You could also use colors to indicate regular and irregular verbs in foreign languages. Color coding is especially helpful for students who are visual or tactile learners.


Computer-generated cards can also enhance the learning process. Students can type a list to create question cards, cut them out, and fill in the answers by hand on the back side. Tactile learners benefit by using this process, as writing the answers actually becomes part of the learning process.


If you find that writing out the answers is the most beneficial part of the process for you, you can simply repeat the process of printing the list and writing the answers.


To create cards in Microsoft Word, simply use three columns and a large font size. You can highlight your individual words or questions to change size and color.


To create cards in Excel, create a table three columns wide. You can tab from one column to another to input words or questions. You can highlight columns to change font size or to print.


If you want to use your cards repeatedly for the entire school year, you may want to laminate them.


You can keep blank index cards on hand as you take class notes. When you hear an important term, you can write the term on a card right away and add the answers later, when you study. This process encourages you to reinforce the information you hear in class.


When studying with flashcards, make a small check mark on the corner of those you get right. When you have made two or three marks on a card, you know you can put it in a separate pile. Keep going through your main pile until all cards have two or three marks.


Cut up poster boards to make very large cards. These come in many colors, so you can use the colors to create specific meanings.



Flashcards for Study Groups

For classes that require you to memorize many definitions, such as social studies or history classes, you may want to gather together to create a master list of flash cards using the glossary in the back of your textbook. If possible, use color coding to indicate for which chapter each term is relevant.


Make a matching game with your cards for your study group. Make separate cards for the questions and the answers, leaving the back sides blank. Place the cards face down and turn them over, one by one, trying to find matches.


Make a competition with your cards by forming two teams. Assign a scorekeeper to hold up cards and keep track as team members call out the right answers.

Monday, July 13, 2009

Edward de Bono




Edward de Bono was born in Malta in 1933. He attended St Edward's College, Malta, during World War II and then the University of Malta where he qualified in medicine. He proceeded, as a Rhodes Scholar, to Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained an honours degree in psychology and physiology and then a D.Phil in medicine. He also holds a Ph.D from Cambridge and an MD from the University of Malta. He has held appointments at the universities of Oxford, London, Cambridge and Harvard.


Dr Edward de Bono is one of the very few people in history who can be said to have had a major impact on the way we think. In many ways he could be said to be the best known thinker internationally.


He has written numerous books with translations into 34 languages (all the major languages plus Hebrew, Arabic, Bahasa, Urdu, Slovene, Turkish etc). He has been invited to lecture in 52 countries around the world.


In the University of Buenos Aires five faculties use his books as required reading. In Venezuela, by law, all school children must spend an hour a week on his programmes. In Singapore 102 secondary schools use his work. In Malaysia the senior science schools have been using his work for ten years. In the U.S.A., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland and the UK there are thousands of schools using Dr de Bono's programmes for the teaching of thinking. At the International Thinking Meeting in Boston (1992) He was given an award as a key pioneer in the direct teaching of thinking in schools.


In 1988 he was awarded the first Capire prize in Madrid for a significant contribution to humankind.


What is unique about Dr de Bono is the response to his work across an unusually wide spectrum.


At the special request of the delegates Dr de Bono was asked to address the Commonwealth Law Conference in Vancouver in August 1996 (2,300 senior lawyers, judges etc from 52 Commonwealth countries and other invited countries such as China). This followed an address which was regarded as the highlight of a previous Conference held in Auckland.


Dr de Bono has worked with many of the major corporations in the world such as IBM, Du Pont, Prudential, AT&T, British Airways, British Coal, NTT(Japan), Ericsson(Sweden), Total(France), etc. The largest corporation in Europe, Siemens (370,000 employees) is teaching his work across the whole corporation, following Dr de Bono's talk to the senior management team. When Microsoft held their first ever marketing meeting, they invited Edward de Bono to give the keynote address in Seattle to the five hundred top managers.


Edward de Bono's special contribution has been to take the mystical subject of creativity and, for the first time in history, to put the subject on a solid basis. He has shown that creativity was a necessary behaviour in a self-organising information system. His key book, 'The Mechanism of Mind' was published in 1969. In it he showed how the nerve networks in the brain formed asymmetric patterns as the basis of perception. The leading physicist in the world, Professor Murray Gell Mann, said of this book that it was ten years ahead of mathematicians dealing with chaos theory, non-linear and self-organising systems.


From this basis, Edward de Bono developed the concept and tools of lateral thinking. What is so special is that instead of his work remaining hidden in academic texts he has made it practical and available to everyone, from five years olds to adults. The late Lord Mountbatten once invited Dr de Bono to talk to all his admirals. Dr de Bono was asked to open the first ever Pentagon meeting on Creativity. At the UN Social Summit in Copenhagen he was asked to address the banking and finance group.


The term 'lateral thinking' was introduced by Edward de Bono and is now so much part of the language that it is used equally in a physics lecture and in a television comedy.


Traditional thinking is to do with analysis, judgment and argument. In a stable world this was sufficient because it was enough to identify standard situations and to apply standard solutions. This is no longer so in a changing world where the standard solutions may not work.


There is a huge need world-wide for thinking that is creative and constructive and can design the way forward. Many of the major problems in the world cannot be solved by identifying and removing the cause. There is a need to design a way forward even if the cause remains in place.


Edward de Bono has provided the methods and tools for this new thinking. He is the undisputed world leader in what may be the most important field of all in the future: constructive and creative thinking.


In 1996 The European Creativity Association surveyed their members across Europe to ask who had most influenced them. Dr de Bono's name came so far ahead that they requested the official naming committee of the International Astronomical Union (in Massachusetts) to name a planet after him. So DE73 became EdeBono.


In 1995 the Malta Government awarded Edward de Bono the 'Order of Merit'. This is the highest award available and is limited to only twenty living persons.


For many thousands, indeed millions, of people world-wide, Edward de Bono's name has become a symbol of creativity and new thinking.


In December 1996, The Edward de Bono Foundation in Dublin will be hosting a European Union sponsored conference on "the teaching of thinking in schools".


In 1972 Edward de Bono established the Cognitive Research Trust as a charitable organisation devoted to the teaching of thinking in schools (see CoRT Thinking Lessons).


Edward de Bono founded the International Creative Forum which has had as members many of the leading corporations in the world: IBM, Du Pont, Prudential, Nestle, British Airways, Alcoa, CSR etc.


The International Creativity Office in New York to work with The UN and member countries to produce new ideas on international issues - has been set up by Dr de Bono.


Dr de Bono has made two TV series: de Bono's Course in Thinking (BBC) and The Greatest Thinkers (WDR, Germany)


Peter Ueberroth, whose organisation of the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles rescued the Games from oblivion, attributed his success to his use of de Bono's lateral thinking. So did John Bertrand, skipper of the successful 1983 challenger for the America's Cup yacht race. Ron Barbaro, President of Prudential Insurance (USA) also attributed his invention of living needs benefits to de Bono's methods.


Perhaps what is so unique about Edward de Bono is that his work spans from teaching 7 years olds in primary schools to working with senior executives in the world's largest corporations. His work also spans many cultures: Europe, North and South America, Russia, The Middle East, Africa, SE Asia, Japan, Korea, Australia, New Zealand etc.


In September 1996 there was launched in Melbourne a 'de Bono Institute' as a world centre for new thinking. The Andrews Foundation has donated $8.5 million to make this possible.


In 1997 Dr de Bono has been invited to be one of the major speakers at the first ecology conference to be held in Beijing, China. His role is to provide the 'new thinking' element.


Some of Edward de Bono's recent activities:

Edward de Bono is the consummate peripatetic educator! Nearly every week he is in a different part of the world talking to government leaders, educators and heads of industry and business. Some of his key engagements listed below demonstrate the broad appeal of Dr de Bono's message: thinking can and should be taught if we are to meet the needs of today's fast-paced and changing world.


1. Invited to Moscow by the Academy of Sciences to train teachers in School Project One - ten Moscow schools used as laboratories for innovative teaching techniques.

2. Also, working with a translator, Dr de Bono taught CoRT Thinking lessons to children ranging in age from 7 years old to 17 years old at School 57, the top school in Moscow.

3. Met with the Minister of Education in Kuwait at a special meeting of 500 educators. The Education Research Institute there is interested in initiating a pilot programme using the CoRT Thinking Programme.

4. Spoke at PACRIM, an economics meeting of senior business and government personnel from the Pacific rim nations.

5. Travelled to Minneapolis to talk to the Education Commission of the States about the direct teaching of thinking in schools, and conducted several workshops for Minnesota teachers.

6. Spoke to the Research Board, a group of Information Managers from top Fortune 500 companies, at their meeting in Newport Beach, California.

7. Visited the Annadale Campus of the Northern Virginia Community College where Liz Grizzard, Dean of Student Development, has organised an introductory thinking skills course.

8. Invited to address INSEAD on its 25th anniversary - one of Europe's leading business schools.

9. Arranged a meeting with the corporate leaders from the United States of America, Japan, New Zealand and the United Kingdom to pursue the formation of a task force on thinking.

10. Senior representatives from Xerox, Digital, McDonnell Douglas and Hewlett Packard joined Dr de Bono to explore new strategies that will allow us to consciously plan our future.

11. Delivered a keynote address to the Eighth World Conference on Gifted and Talented Children in Sydney, Australia.

12. Delivered the keynote address to an OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) entitled The Curriculum Redefined: Learning to Think - Thinking to Learn, New Strategies for Effective Communication. Attendees explored the theoretical background of the teaching of thinking, as well as techniques with which thinking skills are now being taught, and the ways those techniques relate to current cognitive development research.


Accolades

In January 1995 Dr de Bono was awarded the National Order of Merit, the highest honour, by the President of Malta. This honour can only be held by 20 living persons at any time. Dr de Bono was born and received his early education in Malta.
July 1994 he was awarded the Pioneer Prize in the field of Thinking at the International Conference on Thinking at M.I.T. in Boston.
1992 the first recipient of the Capire prize in Europe for outstanding achievement.
The book by Edward de Bono - I am right, You are Wrong has forwards by three Nobel laureates.


A recent survey by the European Creativity Association of its members showed that 40% considered Dr de Bono as the greatest influence in the field of creativity. This was far ahead of any other nominee.


When the US Defense University held their first ever symposium on creativity they asked Dr de Bono to open it by telephone from Helsinki, in Finland, where he was at the time.


In 1990 Dr de Bono was invited to chair a meeting of Nobel laureates from around the world. The meeting took place in Korea.



What the World is Saying about Dr de Bono's Works....

In Du Pont, we have many good examples of how out technical people have applied Dr de Bono's lateral thinking techniques to successfully solve difficult problems David Tanner Ph.D, Technical Director, Du Pont

The complexity and pace of contemporary life being what they are, de Bono's course should be an essential curriculum for the human race Alex Kroll, Chairman & President, Yong & Rubican

It's difficult for anyone to put a precise value on Edward de Bono's work and expertise. His views on thinking and creating are persuasive and cumulative Jeremy Bullmore, Chairman, J. Walter Thompson Company

Dr de Bono's course builds up your thinking skills quickly and enjoyably and you then find yourself using the skills instinctively in approaching all situations......

Leaders in every field - from skilled labour to nuclear physics, from manufacturing to selling - have this in common : the ability to think clearly. I've seen in my own organisation how de Bono's concepts have triggered ideas, enthusiasm and positivism - at every level of personnel. Paul MacCready, Founder/President Aero Vironment Inc., known as the 'Father of Human Powered Flight'.

de Bono's work may be the best thing going in the world today. George Gallup, originator of the Gallup Poll.

I definitely know of Dr de Bono and am an admirer of his work. We live in an information economy, where we have to live by what comes out of our minds. John Sculley, Chairman, President and CEO, Apple Computer Inc.

It is a function of clarity of de Bono's approach that his thinking course works well with school children or executives. John Naisbitt, Author of MEGATRENDS 2000

We all hang on to assumptions of the past to make conclusions about the future......de Bono teaches us to challenge such assumptions and develop new creative solutions to problems. Philip L Smith, President, General Foods Corporation

Lateral Thinking.....really transformed my approach to business problems. A. Weinberg, Management Consultant, NY

Creative Thinking is a new field and Dr de Bono is generally regarded as the leading world authority in this area.

SOURCE: www.edwdebono.com/debono/biograph.htm

Thursday, July 9, 2009

My Hero...



He loved us very much and showed it to us all the time, even in his simple act of asking if we have eaten. He was a very knowledgeable man and taught us a lot about the world. And he was always so proud of us. Even the silliest things we did always put a smile on his face. He had dreams for each of us to achieve and now that we are old enough, we are going to do our best to make them come true for him. God brought him into this world as a blessing for us. He suffered a lot for us. I love our papa very much.

My dad, is the best. He is caring, loving, helpful... the list goes on. He always makes us feel a whole lot better. My dad always gives us 110 per cent support no matter what we do and he is always there to keep us calm and under control when we are stressed out. There will never be a day that I am not thankful for my dad.

D - Does what’s best for me.
A - Always there for me.
D - D best dad in the world!

Dad,
For all the times you helped me,
For all the times you supported me,
For being with me,
Through thick and thin,
For telling me never to give up,
For lifting my spirit and hopes,
For believing in me,
And for every little thing you do,
That colours my life like a rainbow,
Your smile lifts me up,
And let’s me know that I’m not alone,
Without you,
My life will be meaningless…

Monday, July 6, 2009

Inclusive School




Inclusive education is about the education of all children in mainstream schools and classrooms and the recent drive toward inclusive education is about more than disability or ‘special educational needs’. It reflects changes in the social and political climate wherein a new approach characterizes thinking about difference.

In recent debate about inclusion, a premium is placed upon full participation by all and respect for the rights of others. Discussion about the benefits of an inclusive society assumes that a society which can nurture, develop and use the skills, talents and strengths of all its members will enlarge its collective resources and ultimately is likely to be more at ease with itself.

These changes in thinking are espoused in much recent discourse about education. Increasingly, this discourse emphasises learners’ rights as well as their needs, and stresses the importance of an education free from discrimination and segregation.

(SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusive_school)

TECHNOLOGY...




Technology is a broad concept that deals with an animal species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects an animal species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη" ("craft") and "logia", "λογία" ("saying"). [1] However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include "construction technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art technology".


The human species' use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.


Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.

Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, opining that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.


(SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology)


PLUS

1) wide coverage (internet, handphones, media mass)
2) save your time to search for more informations (internet)
3) can travel around the world (transportations)
4) watch live matches, (entertainments) concerts, news, etc..
5) make new inventions


MINUS

1) more polutions
2) more diseases occur
3) animals & forests extinct
4) no limit informations (porn, wars, raps..etc)
5) illegal immigrants (work)


INTERESTING


1) can get the informations immediately through the internet
2) more informations
3) can make friends with people around the world
4) can search the informations anytime (internet)
5) develop the country

Tuesday, June 30, 2009

WAY OF TERRY TAO



Professor Terry Tao (born 1975) is an Australian mathematician now working in the US. Tao was a child prodigy who taught himself arithmetic at age 2. He received his PhD at age 20, was appointed a full professor at UCLA at age 24 and won the Field’s Medal in mathematics at age 31. This award is something analogous to a Nobel Prize in maths. (There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics though this is not because Nobel’s wife ran off with a mathematician).

Gregory Mankiw (and Joshua Gans) recently discussed a delightful version of the ‘airport problem’ a problem Tao conceived while manoeuvring around a long airport terminal. The apparently self-evident answer to the first part of this easy-to-state problem* is wrong but thinking clearly about the issue clearly resolves things quickly**.

Anyway I happened to see some classes given by Tao that have been recorded on YouTube. He is not only an obviously brilliant mathematician but an extremely able teacher. This introductory class on the prime numbers is beautifully presented. Poetic, insightful, simple.

It is a pity – from Australia’s perspective if not his own - that he is not working in Australia building up a great mathematics department and attracting scholars of renown here. I’d make the same observation about notable scholars in my own field of economics. That’s definitely not a criticism of any individual – purely an observation that academe here would be better-off with their presence.

Saturday, June 27, 2009

Behaviorism Theory by Burrhus Frederic Skinner (B. F. Skinner)




Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for social reform and poet. He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974. He invented the operant conditioning chamber, innovated his own philosophy of science called Radical Behaviorism, and founded his own school of experimental research psychology—the experimental analysis of behavior. His analysis of human behavior culminated in his work Verbal Behavior, which has recently seen enormous increase in interest experimentally and in applied settings. He discovered and advanced the rate of response as a dependent variable in psychological research. He invented the cumulative recorder to measure rate of responding as part of his highly influential work on schedules of reinforcement. In a recent survey, Skinner was listed as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century. He was a prolific author who published 21 books and 180 articles.



Radical Behaviorism

Finding the behaviorism of his time to be problematic, Skinner branched off his own version he called Radical Behaviorism which unlike methodological behaviorism did not require truth by consensus so it could accept private events such as thinking, perception and emotion in its account. Also, unlike all of the other behaviorists such as Tolman, Hull and Clark, Skinner's version radically rejected mediating constructs and the hypothetico-deductive method, instead offering a strongly inductive, data driven approach that has proven to be successful in dozens of areas from behavioral pharmacology to language therapy in the developmentally delayed.


Verbal Behavior

Challenged by Alfred North Whitehead during a casual discussion while at Harvard to provide an account of a randomly provided piece of verbal behavior Skinner set about attempting to extend his then-new functional, inductive, approach to the complexity of human verbal behavior. Developed over two decades, his work appeared as the culmination of the William James lectures in the book, Verbal Behavior. Although Noam Chomsky was highly critical of Verbal Behavior, he conceded that it was the "most careful and thoroughgoing presentation of such speculations", even though he apparently never read it, confusing Skinner's stance with "S-R psychology" as a reason for giving it "a review." Verbal Behavior had an uncharacteristically slow reception, partly as a result of Chomsky's review, paired with Skinner's neglect to address or rebut any of Chomsky's condemnations. Skinner's peers may have been slow to adopt and consider the conventions within Verbal Behavior due to its lack of experimental evidence—unlike the empirical density that marked Skinner's previous work. However, Skinner's functional analysis of verbal behavior has seen a resurgence of interest in applied settings.



INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION

Skinner influenced education as well as psychology. He was quoted as saying "Teachers must learn how to teach ... they need only to be taught more effective ways of teaching." Skinner asserted that positive reinforcement is more effective at changing and establishing behavior than punishment, with obvious implications for the then widespread practice of rote learning and punitive discipline in education. Skinner also suggests that the main thing people learn from being punished is how to avoid punishment.
Skinner says that there are five main obstacles in learning:

1. People have a fear of failure.
2. The task is not broken down into small enough steps.
3. There is a lack of directions.
4. There is also a lack of clarity in the directions.
5. Positive reinforcement is lacking.


Skinner suggests that any age-appropriate skill can be taught using five principles to remedy the above problems:

1. Give the learner immediate feedback.
2. Break down the task into small steps.
3. Repeat the directions as many times as possible.
4. Work from the most simple to the most complex tasks.
5. Give positive reinforcement.

-introductions-

****shedar.....???


*******what does it mean? hmm...try guess~

***can u find the answer?? haha~

***okay..i'll explain where did we get this name and why we chose it..

***shedar = name of the star...

= has distinction of being 1 of the 1st 2 stars beyond the Sun

= the brightest, though not by much and not all of the time

= describes the position of the star in the heart of the ancient Queen


*********** we want to be 'the brightest' group in our class...oh yeahhh!! go shedars~*********